The Dictatus Papae was significant in that it affirmed and strengthened Papal authority.[2] It included general dictates, such as the Pope alone having the ability to depose, reinstate, or transfer bishops (3, 13), that nothing is canonical without his authority (17), he may not be judged or condemned by anyone (19-20), or that a synod cannot be called without his order (16). Dictate 22 makes the bold and challenging claim that “the Roman church has never erred; nor will it err to all eternity.” Dictate 23 declares that the Pope is automatically a saint by the merits of St. Peter.[3]
What the Dictatus does is give all ecclesiastical, canonical, Scriptural, and saintly authority to the incumbent Pope. Other dictates imbue him with imperial authority. In fact, dictate 8 declares that “he alone may use the imperial insignia,” dictate 9 declares “That of the pope alone all princes shall kiss the feet,” and perhaps most significant, dictate 12 strongly declares “That it may be permitted to him to depose emperors” (emphasis mine). This is an enormous amount of authority, effectively giving the Papacy power over both Church and Empire. This was not new however, as a mere two centuries before, Charlemagne was crowned by Pope Leo III, a power move signifying the Church’s authority over the ruling Emperor.
At this point, it is necessary to look at the alleged author of the Dictatus Papae to uncover why these dictates mattered. After the death of Pope Alexander, Hildebrand the monk was elected as Pope Gregory VII. He had already been engaged in reformation work for several years, and continued this during his Papacy. As Gonzalez notes, “His dream was of a world united under the papacy, as one flock under one shepherd.”[4] He also declared that the Bible should not be translated into the vernacular, as interpretation should lie with Rome, and undertook reforms such as clerical celibacy.[5] Each of these were significant power moves made by the Papacy. He also wanted to unite Europe, the Byzantine Church, and lands that were under Islamic rule, and wanted to “organize a great military offense against Islam… a project that two decades later would result in the Crusades.”[6]
Some of these reforms put the Papacy and Empire in direct conflict. Emperor Henry IV, in response to riots in Milan, deposed the bishop and appointed a new one. But as the Dictatus Papae declared, the Pope alone could depose and appoint, so Gregory ordered the Emperor to appear in Rome by a set date. If he did not, “he would be deposed and his soul condemned to hell.”[7] In turn, on Christmas Eve 1075, Gregory was attacked and taken prisoner, but eventually escaped. The Emperor then called a council and “declared that Gregory was deposed on grounds of tyranny, adultery, and the practice of magic… [and sent] notification of these decisions ‘to Hildebrand, not a pope, but a false monk.’”[8]
But Gregory did not give up his authority. Instead, he forbade anyone to obey Henry, denied his rule over Germany and Italy, and freed those who swore oaths to him.[9] Gregory later rescinded this for a while, but eventually re-excommunicated Henry. In turn, Henry marched on Rome, and Gregory went into exile. Henry elected a new Pope named Clement III. Gregory died in 1085, and said as his last words, “I have loved justice and hated iniquity. Therefore I die in exile.”[10] While the Dictatus Papae may not have been directly written by Gregory, it certainly reflects the spirit of his vision and reforms, as well as his back-and-forth political conflict with the Emperor. The dictates embody this historical struggle for power held by the Papacy.
Gregory VII and the Dictatus Papae also laid the groundwork for Urban II, whom the reformers elected as Pope after the former’s death. He regained control of Rome and expelled Clement III. By continuing the Gregory’s policies and following the Dictatus, Urban came in conflict with several figures, such as Philip I of France. He excommunicated Philip on the grounds of adultery. Urban also had influence over Emperor Henry’s son, Conrad, and encouraged his rebellion. Conrad promised that if “he were made emperor he would give up any claim to the right to the appointment and investiture of bishops,” a reversal of the actions taken by his father.[11] These interactions show a power play between the Papacy and the Empire, shaped by the same theology and politics of authority in the Dictatus Papae.
The influence of the Papacy’s power was alarmingly reaffirmed and strengthened at the Council of Clermont in 1095. Emperor Alexis I requested support against the Muslims Turks, and in response, Urban officially declared the First Crusade.[12] His speech as we have it was recorded by the chronicler, Fulcher of Chartres.”[13] In it, after describing conditions for Christians in the Holy Land, Urban declared, “On this account I, or rather the Lord, beseech… all people of whatever rank, foot-soldiers and knights, poor and rich, to carry aid promptly to those Christians and to destroy that vile race… Moreover, Christ commands it” (emphasis mine). Through his power and authority he also declared, “All who die by the way, whether by land or by sea, or in battle against the pagans, shall have immediate remission of sins. This I grant them through the power of God with which I am invested” (emphasis mine).
Historian Mark A. Noll notes that while Urban II painted the Crusade as a rescue of the Holy Land from Islam, and the First Crusade did capture Jerusalem in 1099, the cost was very high.[14] Over the next few hundred years, Crusade after Crusade was declared through the power and authority of the Papacy, and led to the death of countless Jews, Muslims and Christians. The word “power” can carry with it rather strong connotations, but this is very much intentional when we speak of the power of the Papacy over the Empire and over the faithful. No doubt, both Pope Gregory VII and Urban II, as well as the author of the Dictatus Papae, believed they were carrying out the will of God and the good of Christendom. But it is also clear that the Pope, the Bishop of Rome, was quickly becoming more than just a religious figure.
The actions of both men and the dictates provided not only religious and ecclesiastical power, but also power over the Emperor that essentially made the Pope, and by proxy, the Catholic Church, the inheritors of a new Roman Empire. That is, while Rome may have fallen centuries before, it was symbolically reborn through the power and authority of the Pope, who became a sort of imperial ruler in his own way. The Pope held authority over the Byzantine Emperor, controlled which bishops were in office and influenced the faithful, excommunicated and condemned rulers whose political actions he did not condone, and also declared fairly brutal Crusades against entire peoples. The actions of these Popes paved the way for further conflicts over the next few hundred years, not only through the Crusades but also the division of the Church itself and ultimately led in part to the challenging of the Papacy in the Protestant Reformation.
Endnotes
[1] Justo L. Gonzalez, The Story of Christianity Volume I: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation (New York: HarperOne, 2010.).; Mark A. Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2012.).
[2] The exact authorship is unclear. In 1087, Cardinal Deusdedit published a collection of Church laws. Due to striking similarities, “some have argued the Dictatus must have been based on it… [but there] is little doubt that it [does] express the pope's principals” (Pope Gregory VII. Dictatus Papae (1090). Trans. Ernest F. Henderson. Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages (London: George Bell and Sons, 1910), 366-367.). As such, the assumption is here made that it represents the reforms and vision of Pope Gregory VII.
[3] The dictate specifies that this is based on the witness of St. Ennodius of Pavia, the decrees of Pope St. Symmachus, and other “holy fathers,” along with inheriting the role from St. Peter. It thus intentionally roots itself in tradition to assert its authority.
[4] Gonzalez, Story of Christianity, 337.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid.
[7] Ibid., 338.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Ibid., 339.
[10] Ibid., 340.
[11] Ibid., 341.
[12] Ibid., 346.
[13] “Urban II: Speech at Council of Clermont, 1095, according to Fulcher of Chartres” in Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos, trans. in Oliver J. Thatcher, and Edgar Holmes McNeal, eds., A Source Book for Medieval History (New York: Scribners, 1905), 513-17.
[14] Mark A. Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2012), 222-223.
Bibliography
Gregory VII. Dictatus Papae (1090). Trans. Ernest F. Henderson. Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages. London: George Bell and Sons, 1910, 366-367.
Justo L. Gonzalez. The Story of Christianity Volume I: The Early Church to the Dawn of the Reformation. New York: HarperOne, 2010.
Mark A. Noll. Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity. 3rd ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2012.
“Urban II: Speech at Council of Clermont, 1095, according to Fulcher of Chartres” in Bongars. Gesta Dei per Francos. Trans. in Oliver J. Thatcher, and Edgar Holmes McNeal, eds., A Source Book for Medieval History. New York: Scribners, 1905. 513-17.
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